Why Does Planet Earth Have So Much Water?

by Max Moreno, age 14

For nearly all of Earth's existence, water has played a crucial role in life. However, scientists continue to study how it got here.

When Earth was still forming, it was too close to the Sun and therefore too hot for any water to exist. Many theories try to explain how Earth got its water, but none of these theories have been proven. Most modern theories suggest that water came from outer space during Earth's first 100 million years.

One common theory is that, while the solar system was still forming, many asteroids and other objects collided with Earth. Those objects could have contained ice, which then melted and turned into water. Over millions of years, this may have been the reason why Earth is now covered with water. [Read More]

How Stars Are Born, Evolve, and Die

by Amayah Henderson, age 12

Over many years, scientists have discovered that stars have both a birth and a death. All stars are born in an interstellar nebula cloud. These stars are born when gas collapses inward, causing it to spin around the star as it forms, creating a large disk of stellar material. During its birth, a star is imbalanced because of the gravity pushing inward and the hot gases that are pushing outwards. Following this stage, the two forces balance, leading to the three cycles. When stars are born, they can be different depending on their mass. They could be lightweight, mediumweight, or heavyweight.

Lightweight stars are typically 0.8 to eight times the mass of the sun. These stars spend billions of years in a stable phase, making energy by converting hydrogen to helium until the hydrogen is exhausted to create a massive red supergiant. After millions of years, the star's outer layers expand, leaving just a core compressed by gravity. What’s left is called a white dwarf star.

In contrast, a middle-weight star can be eight to 20 times the mass of the sun. These stars evolve faster, barely spending a few billion years in the stable phase, using all of their fuel. It then evolves into a supergiant with a nuclear supply that emits large amounts of light, then dies in a harsh supernova explosion, blowing away its outer layers and leaving a giant, city-sized core known as a neutron star. [Read More]

What Remains When a Star Goes Supernova?

by Evelyn Jakubczak, age 12

The Crab Nebula is a stellar object about 6,000 to 6,500 light-years away. It can be found in the night sky in the constellation Taurus. The Crab Nebula was created after a supernova exploded in 1054 AD. Since then, it's the most well-known supernova remnant. Yang Wei-te, who recorded the explosion, said it shined for weeks even during the daylight.

The Crab Nebula gets its name from early astronomers who thought it looked like a crab claw. It is about 20 kilometers wide, with more mass than the sun, and spins every 33 milliseconds. This means that a single point on its surface moves 4 million miles per hour.

When the original star collapsed a rapidly spinning neutron star was created. The pulsar releases large amounts of energy, about 100,000 times that of the sun’s power that lights up the nebula. As it emits energy, its’ spinning slows down. Every 30 seconds, the pulsar gives off bursts of radiation, caused by its strong magnetic field ten trillion times stronger than Earth’s radiation. [Read More]

New Moon Discovered Orbiting Planet Uranus

by Sofia Zapata, age 16

The number of known moons of planet Uranus recently increased to 29. A moon orbiting Uranus was found by the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) during an observation with NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope.

The discovery of new moons is rare; however, it still occurs from time to time on big planets like Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune, and Uranus. “These planets have many moons, and some are so tiny and faint that we’re still discovering them,” said El Moutamid, a prominent Moroccan astrophysicist at the (SRI). This is why new moons were most likely not visible to Voyager 2 and other telescopes. The new moon was hard to find as it is estimated to be ten kilometers in diameter and about 35,000 miles from Uranus’ center.

Uranus has been described by Voyager 2’s flyby data. On this planet, the creation of its extreme tilt rings came from the rotation on its side, and shed light on the planet’s atmosphere. [Read More]

UW-Madison Physics Professor Inspires Generations of Students

by Kaleab Afeworki, age, 13

Dr. Dan McCammon is a real-life rocket scientist. He studies x-rays, launches sensors into space, and somehow still finds the time to open the doors of his lab to students with an interest in science.

That’s how a group of students from Simpson Street Free Press got an up-close look at Dr. McCammon’s work. Each year, during the UW-Madison’s annual Physics Fair, Simpson Street reporters visit his lab. This year, several of us sat down with him afterwards for an interview.

A physics professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dr. McCammon is known for his research on x-ray astronomy through his X-ray Astrophysics Group laboratory. He uses his expertise and research experience to help undergraduate students find their way in the field of physics and build their careers. [Read More]

What Happens When Galaxies Collide?

Kevin Chen, age 17

For years, scientists believed the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies were on a direct collision course. However, new research suggests that their future is far more uncertain. Several factors could influence the outcome in unexpected ways.

Currently, the galaxies are approximately 2.5 million light-years apart and approaching each other at a speed of 223,694 miles per hour. Earlier estimates predicted a collision in 4.5 billion years, but with improved data and updated computer simulations, results now vary widely. A team of astronomers ran 100,000 simulations and discovered that in just over half of the scenarios, the galaxies come close and merge gradually over eight to ten billion years. According to a study published in Nature Astronomy, about 2% of the outcomes suggest a collision could happen as soon as four to five billion years. In many other cases, however, the galaxies never collide at all.

This uncertainty largely stems from gravitational influences within the Local Group—our corner of the universe, containing around 100 smaller galaxies. The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), a smaller galaxy orbiting the Milky Way, moves mostly sideways relative to Andromeda and could tug the Milky Way slightly off course, reducing the chance of a direct collision. Meanwhile, another galaxy, M33, applies a weaker pull that nudges the Milky Way toward Andromeda. These forces are enough to shift future trajectories and cause a range of possible outcomes. [Read More]

James Webb Space Telescope Discovers Carbon Dioxide on a Planet Outside Our Solar System

by Dulce Vazquez, age 17

Recently, the James Webb space telescope detected carbon dioxide outside our solar system. Carbon dioxide could be a sign of habitability, but it is not the case for this planet. Yet this discovery could advance our knowledge of the creation of planets. Carbon dioxide is an odorless gas that is formed when two oxygen atoms and a carbon combine.

The HR8799 solar system is extremely far from Earth and is also a lot younger than our solar system. This solar system was found to have carbon dioxide by using the James Webb Telescope. The telescope was used by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STSID).

The James Webb telescope is a powerful tool. The coronagraph instrument found in the James Webb telescope helped the STSI team, which led them to an infrared light that is produced by the planets and absorbed by carbon dioxide. They also spotted different heavy elements such as oxygen, carbon, and iron in the planet's atmosphere. [Read More]

New Wisconsin Center of Origins Explores Life Beyond Earth

by John Agbo, age 14

The question that has captivated humanity for centuries—“Is there life beyond Earth?”—is now at the forefront of research and exploration at the newly established Wisconsin Center of Origins, known as WiCOR.

This center combines seven fields of study: integrative biology, geoscience, astronomy, chemistry, bacteriology, botany, along with atmospheric and oceanic sciences. Each discipline offers a unique perspective and builds on the others to provide a comprehensive examination of the origins of life, both on Earth and beyond.

Eric Wilcots, the Dean of the College of Letters and Science and a professor of astronomy, envisioned WiCOR. The center's broad array of specialties has attracted significant interest from researchers worldwide, who are eager to explore the rich possibilities the program offers. Notably, the center's groundbreaking inaugural project, [Read More]

Why Mars Glows Red in the Sky

by Aloniab Gezae age 11

Mars, the red planet, is one of the eight planets in our solar system. It is a terrestrial planet, which means it is made out of rock and metals. Some scientists think Mars could once have supported life similar to Earth.

Mars has many names, most for the same reason. For example, it is titled “The Red Planet” because of its red color. Mars’ bloody-red appearance also led the Greeks and the Romans to name it after their gods of war: Ares for the Greeks, and Mars for the Romans. Additionally, ancient Chinese astronomers called it the “fire star.”

Have you ever wondered why Mars is red? Its surface is covered with dust rich in iron. When the iron combines with oxygen, it forms iron oxide, or rust, which has a distinct red color. This coating of rusted dust gives the planet its iconic tone. [Read More]

The Strange Arctic Landscape of Devon Island

by Kaleab Afeworki, age 13

Devon Island is the largest uninhabited island in the world. It is more than five times the size of Hawaii. This island is located in the Canadian Arctic.

Devon Island has two environments that are vastly different. The first environment, the polar desert, has a harsh climate that animals are unable to adapt to. However, there are tiny parts of this biome where there are richer ecosystems, more plants covering the area, and accessible water. The temperature on the island ranges from -16°C (3.2°F) in the winter to 8°C (46.4°F) in the summer. These rare areas, while typically dry, contain moisture throughout the summer.

The other environment on Devon Island is called Truelove Lowland. This polar oasis is located on the north coast of Devon Island. This biome contains a large variety of plants, a more diverse ecosystem than the polar desert, and has a rich habitat that different species can live in. During the summer, this biome rarely exceeds temperatures over 10°C (50°F) in a span of under two months. [Read More]

Stephen Hawking’s Brilliant Life Despite the Odds

by Nae McNeail, age

Professor Stephen Hawking unfortunately passed away at the age of 76 in 2018. He was amazing in his academics and an outstanding mathematician before he passed.

Hawking was a hard-working, active man before he was diagnosed at age 21 with motor-neurone disease, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, from which he suffered for almost all of his adult life.

Stephen met his first wife, Jane, a few years before he was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig’s disease. Jane and Stephen would have fallen in love with or without his disease. [Read More]

James Webb Telescope Proves Our Universe Is Expanding Faster Than Science Can Explain

by Will DeFour, age 15

Recent observations from the James Webb Telescope confirm earlier findings that the universe is expanding up to 8% faster than previously believed. However, this old observation was never due to miscalculations and could be associated with dark energy.

The rate of expansion of the universe is called the Hubble constant. It is measured in kilometers per second per megaparsec. However, the Hubble constant is faster than it was after the Big Bang when the universe was formed. The difference is called the Hubble Tension and has been a mystery to physicists for nearly a century. The New findings from the James Webb Telescope have just proved its existence.

Over the billions of years since the Big Bang, the expansion of the universe has been speeding up. This is due to a Mysterious Force called dark energy. It is a repulsive substance that counteracts the force of gravity. It currently makes up 68% of the universe's total energy density and could be the solution to the Hubble Constant. [Read More]

White Holes Could Be the Opposites of Black Holes but No One Knows if They Exist

by Kevin Chen, age 17

Black holes are among the most mysterious objects in the universe, pulling in everything that goes near them. But what if there were cosmic objects that did the exact opposite– expelling matter instead of capturing it? The concept of white holes emerges from the same set of equations that describe black holes, yet they remain purely theoretical. While nothing can escape a black hole, nothing could enter a white hole. Some physicists believe white holes might exist, while others argue they are not possible.

They were first proposed as a solution to Einstein's general relativity equations by physicist Karl Schwarzschild in 1916, just a year after Einstein’s theory was published. Schwarzschild’s calculations describe black holes as completely collapsed objects, but since general relativity does not dictate a fixed direction for time, the equations also allowed for a similar object – a white hole.

Physicists describe white holes as a “time reversal” of black holes. Unlike black holes, which trap matter inside, white holes would constantly eject material into the universe. However, no known event or process in the universe seems to create white holes, which is why they are purely theoretical. [Read More]

From Moon to Mars: NASA's Ambitious Artemis Mission Set to Propel Human Exploration

by Will DeFour, age 13

Over 50 years ago, Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon. Now, half a century later, another explorer will leave Earth's orbit and take another adventure, our first encounter with our closest friend, Mars. NASA plans to use the Artemis mission to return to the moon and reach Mars, some 140 million miles away, for the first time. To get there safely, first, it plans to use the moon to test new life support and spacecraft for the Mars mission.

Artemis II is a mission designed to orbit the moon, and then return. However, nobody is stepping on the moon again until the next mission, Artemis III. Those will be the first woman and first person of color to walk on the moon. Artemis II is going to be the first flight of Orion, the spacecraft designed to get astronauts to Mars. But how does a single spacecraft go that far? The answer is the Gateway. [Read More]

The Spectacular Finale of a Dying Star

by John Agbo, age 14

In the vast and boundless expanse of the universe, a breathtaking astronomical phenomenon has captivated the human mind since its earliest discovery: the awe-inspiring supernova. A supernova is the spectacular finale of a dying star. When they erupt, supernovas unleash a brilliance so intense that their light can outshine entire galaxies for days, weeks, or even months. These dramatic stellar explosions serve as powerful reminders of the magnificent and unfathomable mysteries that are ever-present in the cosmos.

To fully grasp the explosive nature of supernovas, one must understand the process of a star's death. Several types of massive stars, known as supernova progenitors, can produce supernovas during their final phases. Throughout their lives, these celestial giants simultaneously contend with the relentless pull of gravity and continuously generate heat and pressure from the nuclear fusion occurring in their fiery cores. This delicate balance between gravitational forces and the outward pressure created by the fusion is a crucial aspect of stellar evolution.

As a massive star ages, the processes within its core evolve significantly, depleting its resources. Eventually, a thrilling climax occurs: the once-stable star undergoes rapid compression. As the inward pull of gravity overwhelms the outward pressure, the outer layers of the star collapse inward. This leaves behind a tiny, Earth-sized core known as a white dwarf, which condenses a mass greater than our sun into an astonishingly small volume. The sheer density of a white dwarf is staggering — just a single teaspoon of its material can weigh about 5.5 tons! As the white dwarf cools and solidifies over millions of years, it essentially becomes a diamond in the sky – literally because its core crystallizes to become a diamond. White dwarfs contribute to the cosmic landscape by releasing elements that can form new stars. [Read More]

Incoming Asteroid Burns in the Atmosphere Over the Pacific Ocean

by John Agb, age 13

Earth narrowly avoided a small-scale disaster. On September 4, 2024, a small asteroid ignited in the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean, near the Philippines. Luckily, it burned up before causing any damage.

The European Space Agency (ESA) reported that the asteroid was only about one meter wide and was detected shortly before it entered the atmosphere. Although it didn’t pose a threat to Earth, similar objects can occasionally create bright fireballs, but they typically disintegrate due to their small size.

Researchers are actively working on ways to get an earlier warning if a larger object heads toward Earth. One example is NASA’s 2022 Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), a mission designed to see if we could alter an asteroid's path. DART collided with Dimorphos, a 160-meter-wide asteroid moonlet orbiting a larger asteroid, Didymos, successfully slowing Dimorphos in its orbit and offering insights into potential asteroid redirection. [Read More]

Black Holes Are Mysterious Giants That Shape Our Galaxy

by Aloniab Gezae, age 10

A black hole is a region in space with an extremely powerful gravitational force. Black holes aren’t holes; rather, they are composed of extremely dense material packed into a tiny space, creating a remarkable force that pulls everything inward. This gravity draws in anything that comes near, and it is so strong that even light cannot escape. Black holes are called “black” because they are invisible in space.

There are two types of black holes, a supermassive and a stellar. Supermassive black holes are the largest, with masses millions of times greater than that of the sun. The black hole at the center of our galaxy, known as Sagittarius A, is a supermassive black hole that plays a crucial role in influencing the motion of stars around the center of the Milky Way. The most common type of black hole is the stellar black hole, which forms from the collapse of a massive star and can be around 20 times the mass of the sun.

A black hole is made from an exploded star. A star is a gigantic sphere of hydrogen, which powers it through nuclear fusion. When the star runs out of fuel, it collapses, triggering a supernova. A supernova is an explosion caused by the star’s core collapsing under gravity. After the explosion, if the core's mass is high enough, a black hole is left behind. Many large galaxies have supermassive black holes at their centers, but not every galaxy necessarily has one. [Read More]

Nebulae Are the Birthplace of Stars

by Malak Alquraishi, age 13

A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas. There are several different types of nebulae, and they are an essential part of the interstellar medium—the matter that exists in the space between stars within galaxies. Nebulae are among the most spectacular sights in astronomy.

In Latin, "nebula" means cloud, but in an astronomical context, it describes any celestial object that appears cloud-like when viewed through a telescope. With the benefit of modern telescopes, scientists now know that galaxies once thought to be nebulae, are composed of billions of stars. As a result, astronomers now reserve the word "nebula" for genuine clouds of gas and dust, which can be found throughout our galaxy and beyond.

Most nebulae are made of gas that glows with its light, creating colorful displays. This glowing effect is often due to ionized gas, such as hydrogen, being energized by nearby stars. Other nebulae, such as dark nebulae, are composed of more dust. Instead of glowing, they block light from more distant objects, creating dark patches in the sky. Reflection nebulae do not emit their light but instead reflect the light of nearby stars. [Read More]

Future Exploration of Enceladus Could Use Snake-Like Robot

by Ayelen Flores Ruiz, age 14

The idea of living somewhere other than Earth is fascinating for the future. Traces of chemicals needed for life have been detected from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Scientists are trying to find possible ways to explore Enceladus.

Saturn is a well-known planet for its dozens of moons, and Enceladus happens to be one of the many. Since Saturn is the sixth planet away from the sun, the temperatures there are very low. Enceladus has a frozen crust and huge water plumes, essential for sustaining life on the moon. Additionally, it contains phosphorus and hydrogen cyanide, which are needed for life.

Exploring Enceladus is currently an idea NASA has evolved, but it will only happen for a while. They created the Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor, also known as EELS, which will someday be used to research Enceladus. EELS is a robot that has the features of a snake. The robot is four meters long and can move vertically inside crevasses. It can vertically move due to the cylindrical segments that can be angled and rotated. This movement can crawl into Enceladus' fEnceladus't and provide further information about alien life. [Read More]

On a Remote Island in the Arctic Ocean, Scientists Study Life on Mars

by Dulce Vazquez, age 16

The Haughton Impact Crater is perhaps the closest thing we have to Mars on Earth, in addition to being one of the world's northernmost impact craters. The Haughton Impact Crater is found on Nunavut territory on Devon Island in the Arctic.

This crater was originally spotted in sky photographs during the 1950s. It was named after Reverend Samuel Haughton, who was a British natural expert and also wrote the first geological study of the Arctic Archipelago.

The Haughton Impact Crater was formed around 23 million years ago when an unknown object, approximately 1.2 miles in diameter, struck Earth, forming a crater 12.4 miles in diameter. During this period, the northern regions were experiencing warm climates that started with long periods of daylight followed by long periods of darkness. [Read More]

Exploring the Moon’s Formation and the Arrival of a Temporary "Second Moon"

by Semaia Zerezghi, age 9

The Moon was formed at the same time as Earth when a large object, roughly the size of Mars, collided with our planet. The debris from this colossal impact collected to form the Moon, and Earth's gravitational force kept it in orbit. As a result of this crash, the Moon and Earth share many similar materials, although they are not identical.

No other moon is as large relative to its parent planet as Earth's Moon. To understand their relative size, imagine Earth as a basketball and the Moon as a tennis ball 24 feet away. Using this comparison, the Sun would be the size of a large house almost two miles away. The Moon's outer layer is covered in powdery soil, craters, dead volcanoes, and wide lava plains. Unlike Earth, the Moon has no atmosphere, causing its surface temperatures to drop to around -280 degrees Fahrenheit at night and rise to about 260 degrees Fahrenheit during the day.

The Moon goes through changes called "lunar phases." During the first phase, the new moon, no light is reflected. After that, the phases progress through the waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full moon, waning gibbous, last quarter, and waning crescent. These phases repeat in a cycle that lasts about 29.5 days. [Read More]

Stargazers in North America Get Ready for Eventful 2024

by Camila Cruz, age 16

Stargazers in North America should start getting ready because they will have much to watch for in 2024. People are excitedly waiting for two comets, 12 meteor showers, two lunar eclipses, an asteroid, and most excitingly a solar eclipse over parts of the U.S.

Comets are beautiful and become easier to see as they approach Earth. Comets are snowballs of frozen gasses, dust, and rocks. As they travel through our solar system, they leave an icy dust trail. If the comet is close enough to the sun, it creates a mesmerizing, sparkling show. Comets are seen when they link up with Earth’s rotation around the sun. One of the best-known is Halley’s Comet, which was the first comet to be photographed. Halley’s Comet was photographed by multiple spacecraft in 1986. Comets are mainly named by the person or spacecraft who discovered them. Halley’s Comet is named after Edmind Halley, an astronomer.

Comets are also responsible for meteor showers when the debris of the comet's trail hits the atmosphere gets warmed up and shows bright streaks. If it’s a full moon you won’t be able to see meteors as well due to the moonlight. [Read More]

NASA's Osiris-REx Returns with Asteroid Samples to Avert Future Earth Collisions

by Valeria Moreno Lopez, age 17

A NASA spacecraft unleashed its sample findings that could help prevent a collision on Earth. After a seven-year expedition of observing the asteroid Bennu, a sample container landed in a Utah desert this past September. The sample is predicted to contain 250 grams of high-carbon dust and rocks from the asteroid.

In 2016, Osiris-REx, NASA’s third deep-space robotic mission, departed into space, costing over $1 billion. After two years of searching, the spacecraft landed on Bennu to gather material that has been dated back to 4.5 million years ago. Researchers will use this new data to improve the understanding of planet and life formation. To acquire the material, Osiris-REx inserted a stick vacuum connected to a container into the asteroid. However, much more dust and rocks were gathered than expected. This damaged the spacecraft’s container and lost a significant quantity of material. More than 100 grams were collected from extra material that was stuck on the outside of the container, bypassing the original goal of 60 grams.

From more than 500,000 asteroids that orbit our solar system, Bennu was chosen for the mission because of its elements. Its length is equal to one-third of a mile and it weighs nearly 172 billion pounds. The asteroid is 50 million miles away from Earth, but scientists found a concerning possibility that Bennu could hit Earth by 2182. They hope to use the sample data to prevent pocket collisions on our planet. One way is to change the trajectory using kinetic impactors. Dante Lauretta, the mission’s leader from the University of Arizona, said, “With each revelation from Bennu, we draw closer to unraveling the mysteries of our cosmic heritage.” [Read More]

Revolutionizing Space Communication Through Lasers

by Allison Torres, age 15

Lasers represent the future of communication. Currently, the International Space Station relies on 5G and broadband internet for its Earth communication. However, this mode of communication involves a delay of approximately 2.5 seconds for information transmission.

Unlike radio waves, lasers constitute invisible light with greater robustness. Their wavelengths are also 10,000 times shorter than those of radio waves. Consequently, lasers require a mere 0.0003 megabits per second to traverse from one point to another. Introducing lasers into the orbit within our solar system stands to significantly enhance the speed of data transmission via satellites.

The application of lasers extends beyond space-related endeavors. We currently employ lasers in various technologies, including 3D scanners, laser surgery for cancer treatment, barcode scanners, and information processing in DVDs, and Blu-rays. [Read More]

Two Black Holes Orbiting Each Other Were Discovered in Cosmic Light Show by Astronomers

by Allison Torres, age 14

Scientists have made a remarkable discovery - a previously hidden black hole has emerged from obscurity. This colossal black hole is accompanied by a smaller partner that had remained undetected until now. Astronomers have recently confirmed the emission of light from this smaller black hole. When these two black holes orbit each other, they generate bursts of light, known as a blazar, which emits intense radiation into space, specifically in the OJ287 region.

Mauri Valtonen, who reported this discovery during a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in New Mexico on June 7, emphasized the extraordinary nature of this find, stating, "We've never seen anything like this before."

Predictions made in early 2022 anticipated the most recent flare's appearance. Since that forecast, astronomers have diligently monitored OJ287 using both Earth-based and space telescopes to gain a clearer perspective. [Read More]

Investigating the Mysterious Snow on Saturn's Moon

by Amelia Pearson, age 13

The snow on Saturn’s moon, Enceladus, can bury almost any skyscraper on Earth. Scientists would like to find out why.

The snow’s depth on Enceladus shows that its water vapor could have been more active in the past. Geysers on the moon allow for water from a salty ocean under an icy shell to rise to the surface of Enceladus. Some of this water contributes to forming one of Saturn’s rings. According to the researchers, the rest of this water seems to land back on the ground in the form of snow. Scientists believe that if they could fully understand the snow's properties, it could help uncover Enceladus’ history.

For scientists to fully understand the properties of the snow on Enceladus, they looked into Iceland. In Iceland, there are marks in the ground made from loose rocks, ice, or snow called pit chains. Scientists discovered they are very similar to features on Enceladus. [Read More]

A Star is Born: The Life Cycle of Stars

by Valeria Moreno Lopez, age 16

Every single birth of a star in the sky begins in an immense cloud of gas, dust, and debris. These colorful clouds are called nebulae, cosmic wonders that swirl around space undisturbed for millions of years.

In the beginning stages of a star’s formation, many occurrences in space can cause a nebula to warp and change its structure. As a result, it will collapse on its own gravity, shrink, and spin faster until it leaves a hot and bright core called a protostar. After the young star is formed, it cannot be seen immediately due to debris surrounding it. Thousands of years later, the star will be able to gather enough heat to engulf anything around it. Finally, when temperatures reach about 27 million degrees, the atoms at the core stick together to emit huge amounts of energy. Thus, lighting the star.

Often, stars are categorized by their mass: lightweight, middleweight, or heavyweight. [Read More]

Asteroid to Approach Earth in 2029

by Lah’Nylah Bivens, age 15

In the year 2029 there will be an asteroid named 99942 Apophis that will approach Earth for the first time. However, after years of calculation and observation scientists have stated that it will not make an impact on the planet.

On Friday, April 13, 2029, Apophis will closely pass Earth. This asteroid is record-breaking size for an asteroid passing the Earth. Scientists know that asteroids orbit in elliptical paths around the sun; this has allowed them to observe Apophis since 2004. Astronomers have found approximately 30,000 objects that could possibly pass Earth. Scientists and astronomers have used the Torino Scale since 1995, the torino scale uses a color-coded warning system that measures the degree of danger an asteroid or comet will have when passing Earth in the next 100 years. The scale can range from zero to ten. Apophis is a four on this scale.

Apophis stunned scientists after they found that it had a three percent chance of hitting Earth, which is higher than normal. Scientists are monitoring the asteroid’s every move using radar observations and they were able to confirm that Apophis will pass 19,000 miles above Earth's surface in 2029 but will not strike. [Read More]

Mars Rover Microphone Captures Sound from the Red Planet

by Sedona Afeworki, age 14

On September 27, 2021, a NASA rover detected a rumbling sound and forceful winds on Mars, later discovering that it was a dust devil.

A dust devil is a small vortex that swirls dust, debris and sand to great heights. The whirlwind on Mars was around 400 feet tall and about 80 feet wide, going fast at 16 feet per second. Its rumbling gusts went 25 miles per hour for around 10 seconds.

The sound of the dust devil on Mars is quite similar to how it sounds on Earth. However, the sounds are more quiet due to Mars’ thin atmosphere, which also makes the winds sound weaker. Last year, a dust devil went right over the range rover Perseverance currently on Mars. Scientist German Martinez, a co-author at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston stated, “it was fully caught red-handed by Persy.” [Read More]

Webb Space Telescope Sends New Images to Scientists on Planet Earth

by Lah’Nylah Bivens, age 15

The James Space Webb Telescope launched on December 25th, 2021. It is the newest and most powerful space telescope. It has been sending images and data to scientists on Earth since early summer 2022.

This telescope helps scientists study information and data from our universe's earliest galaxies and stars. NASA scientists have been discussing the image they received of the Southern Ring planetary nebula. The image depicts a gas that surrounds a dying star. Researchers found the image fascinating, particularly since this is what our own sun could look like in five billion years. They also report that the star is pushing out its outer layers which include oxygen and carbon that could help feed other space objects. This happens when a star is dying and a new star is coming to life.

This telescope sits 1.5 million kilometers from Earth and has allowed us to see the most distant galaxies we have ever observed. The Webb telescope has made many other discoveries. It has photographed a large variety of early galaxies that are estimated to date up to 280 million years after the Big Bang. It also discovered a younger area named NGC 3324 which shows “cosmic cliffs” and stars being created. NGC 3324 is about 8,500 light years away from Earth. This telescope has also found a massive gas exoplanet named WASP-96b. The telescope data allows scientists to analyze and investigate what seems to be water in its atmosphere. [Read More]

First Plant Successfully Sprouts in Lunar Soil

by Daniel Li, age 15

The first seeds to ever sprout in lunar soil poked their heads above moon dirt at the University of Florida in May. Decades of research and experimentation led to this breakthrough which marks the first time terrestrial plants have grown in extra-terrestial soil. It also offers hope that astronauts will one day be able to grow food on the moon.

Three scientists from the University of Florida filled 12 pots of soil from the space expeditions Apollo 11, 12, and 17; 4 pots for each trip’s sample. They chose to use thale cress, a small flowering weed, due to its ability to grow in small amounts of dirt, which was important because NASA was frugal when providing the samples. Sixteen additional pots were filled with volcanic material from Earth, which is often used to mimic lunar soil. These pots were treated with the same nutrients and light levels to ensure unbiased results. Aside from these pots, there was also a control group of plants grown in soil samples from Earth.

The seeds did sprout, but compared to the control group, seedlings were not nearly as successful. The healthiest plants were smaller than they should have been, while the weakest were smaller still and had a sickly purple tint, a sign of plant stress. This is most likely due to the sharpness of the soil, caused by high amounts of metallic iron (compared to the oxidized iron in the Earth’s soil), and glass shards formed by lunar surface collisions. The soil also lacked many nutrients that plants require to grow such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium. [Read More]

There’s a Chance the Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy Is Actually a Wormhole

by Allison Torres, age 14

Writers that love science fiction like the idea of wormholes. Go in a wormhole, and it might transfer you to another place in time.

Physicists have taken the time to study and talk about what it might actually look like inside a black hole. There could be a wormhole in the middle of our galaxy. One way scientists are able to confirm that wormholes exist would be to go through a black hole and see if there is a hidden bridge. Although, this would be a rare occurrence, since the Milky Way is more of a door than a dead end. They could also probably figure out if there is any presence of existing life on the other side.

Researchers have found that orbits of stars, such as S2, have been orbiting a giant black hole for years. Scientists say that if this star or other stars feel existence on the other side of a black hole then the star would perform a peculiar dance. It could begin to move and jump in unusual ways that signify a possible wormhole. Astronomers are planning to measure the orbit of the star S2 so they can narrow it down. [Read More]

Webb Space Telescope Sends New Images to Scientists on Planet Earth

by Ashley Mercado, age 13

NASA has finally revealed the first set of beautiful images taken from a new space telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope. The first picture from the Space Telescope was a plethora of distant galaxies that go deeper than scientists have ever seen. NASA says the new Webb Telescope will eventually replace the Hubble Telescope. Some of Webb’s images show areas of the universe Hubble has already studied, and some show areas Hubble could not reach.

Webb used infrared light which allowed scientists to obtain a clearer images and show places they have not yet studied. NASA administrator Bill Nelson said, “Every image is a new discovery and each will give humanity a view of the universe that we’ve never seen before.” In the new images, astronomers are looking for two nebulae: the Southern Ring Nebula and the Carina Nebula. They are also looking for five galaxies, known as Stephan’s Quintet, as well as the recently discovered gas planet called WASP-96b.

The strong telescope launched last December from French Guiana in South America and reached its final destination one million miles away in January. The telescope contains many requirements that must be met it in order to take pictures. For example, the telescope uses mirrors to focus its view on spots in space, so these mirrors have to be precisely aligned to function. [Read More]